Introduction to the Claims of Greek Influence on the Gospels
For over a century, liberal critics have asserted that early Christianity, particularly the Gospels, was significantly influenced by Greek philosophical and religious thought, including Platonism, Stoicism, and various pagan mystery religions. Despite numerous scholarly refutations by the mid-20th century, these claims have been revived by contemporary liberal scholars. The Gospel of John, in particular, has been a favorite target for such assertions, with critics alleging influences from Gnosticism, the Jewish philosopher Philo, and other sources. It is essential for Christians to critically examine these claims by considering the evidence, dates, similarities, and the historical context of early Christianity.
Introduction to the Gospels and Their Origins
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are foundational texts of Christianity, providing a detailed account of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Some critics argue that the Gospels are heavily influenced by Greek philosophical thought, thus suggesting that they are not purely rooted in Jewish tradition and historical reality. This claim is worth examining through a detailed study of the Gospels' content, context, and the historical backdrop against which they were written.
The Jewish Roots of the Gospels
To understand the origins of the Gospels, one must first recognize the profound Jewish context in which they were written. Jesus, the central figure of the Gospels, was a Jew who lived in a predominantly Jewish culture. His teachings, actions, and the events of His life are deeply embedded in Jewish customs, laws, and religious practices.
The Gospel of Matthew, for instance, begins with a genealogy that traces Jesus' lineage back to Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation (Matthew 1:1-17). This genealogy emphasizes Jesus' rightful place in Jewish history and His fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies, such as Isaiah 7:14, which Matthew references: "Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel" (Matthew 1:23).
The Historical and Cultural Context of the Gospels
While the Gospels were written in a time when Greek culture and language were pervasive due to Hellenization, their content remains firmly rooted in Jewish tradition. The primary audience of the Gospels varied, with Matthew addressing Jewish readers, Mark writing for a Roman audience, Luke for Gentiles, and John for a broader Christian audience. Despite these different audiences, the Gospels consistently reflect Jewish thought, customs, and religious practices.
Mark’s Gospel, considered by many scholars to be the earliest, presents a straightforward, action-oriented narrative that focuses on the deeds of Jesus. It reflects the urgency and immediacy of Jesus' mission, which is a hallmark of Jewish apocalyptic expectation (Mark 1:15). Mark's emphasis on Jesus as the "Son of Man" (Mark 2:10, 28; 8:38) directly ties to the Jewish apocalyptic literature found in Daniel 7:13-14.
The Synoptic Gospels and Jewish Thought
The Synoptic Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—share many similarities and often recount the same events, sometimes in nearly identical language. This phenomenon is known as the "Synoptic Problem," but it also underscores the shared Jewish context from which these texts emerged.
Matthew's Gospel contains extensive references to the Old Testament, emphasizing how Jesus fulfills Jewish prophecy. For instance, the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7) echoes the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai, but with Jesus positioning Himself as the authoritative interpreter of the Law. This portrayal is profoundly Jewish and directly counters the claim of Greek philosophical influence.
Luke, a companion of Paul and a physician, provides a detailed account that emphasizes the historical and universal scope of Jesus' mission. His Gospel begins with a dedication to Theophilus, indicating a formal historical approach (Luke 1:1-4). Luke’s narrative of Jesus reading from the scroll of Isaiah in the synagogue (Luke 4:16-21) and declaring its fulfillment is a powerful testament to the Jewish roots of His ministry.
The Gospel of John and Its Unique Perspective
The Gospel of John differs significantly from the Synoptic Gospels in style and content, yet it too is deeply rooted in Jewish thought. John emphasizes Jesus as the eternal Word (John 1:1-14), a concept that, while having parallels in Greek philosophy, is firmly grounded in Jewish Wisdom literature, such as Proverbs 8 and the concept of the Word (Logos) in Jewish thought.
John’s Gospel also contains numerous references to Jewish festivals and customs, such as Passover (John 2:13; 6:4; 11:55), the Feast of Tabernacles (John 7:2, 37), and Hanukkah (John 10:22). These references indicate a thorough understanding and incorporation of Jewish tradition.
The Gospel of John and Claims of Greek Influence
The Gospel of John, with its unique theological depth and stylistic differences from the Synoptic Gospels, has drawn significant scrutiny. Critics like Rudolf Bultmann have argued that its prologue (John 1:1-18) and other parts were influenced by Gnosticism and mystery religions. However, these claims require thorough investigation to determine their validity.
The Alleged Influence of Philo and Greek Philosophy
Philo of Alexandria, a Jewish philosopher who lived in the first century C.E., is often cited as a potential influence on the Gospel of John. Philo's writings combine Jewish theology with Greek philosophy, particularly the concept of the Logos (Word). John 1:1 states, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." Critics argue that this reflects Philo's influence.
However, the concept of the Logos in John's Gospel is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, specifically in the Hebrew Scriptures. Genesis 1:1-3 demonstrates the creative power of God's Word: "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. . . . And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." This emphasizes that the Logos in John 1:1 aligns more closely with the Jewish understanding of God's creative Word rather than Greek philosophy.
Furthermore, the context of John 1:1-18 reveals a distinct focus on the incarnation of the Word, "And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (John 1:14). This incarnation theology is absent in Philo's writings and is a unique feature of John's Gospel, emphasizing the divine nature and mission of Jesus Christ.
The Influence of Gnosticism
Gnosticism, an early heretical movement that emerged in the second century C.E., is often cited as an influence on the Gospel of John. Gnostics believed in a dualistic worldview, with a sharp distinction between the material and spiritual realms, and held secret knowledge (gnosis) as the key to salvation.
Critics argue that John's emphasis on light and darkness, truth and falsehood, and knowledge (gnosis) reflects Gnostic influence. However, Gnosticism postdates the New Testament writings and developed independently of early Christian teachings. The New Testament consistently combats Gnostic ideas, as seen in Colossians 2:8, where Paul warns, "See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ."
John's Gospel emphasizes the importance of belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Savior of the world, contrasting sharply with Gnostic teachings. John 20:31 states, "But these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name." This focus on faith in Christ as the path to eternal life is fundamentally opposed to Gnostic reliance on secret knowledge.
The Influence of Greek Language and Culture
While the Gospels were written in Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean at the time, this does not necessarily imply that their content is influenced by Greek philosophy. The use of Greek was a practical necessity to reach a broad audience, including Jews dispersed throughout the Roman Empire (the Diaspora) and Gentiles.
The Gospels' use of Greek should be understood as a vehicle for communication rather than an indication of philosophical influence. For example, the term "logos" in John 1:1, though having philosophical connotations in Greek thought, is used to convey a deeply Jewish concept of the divine Word active in creation and revelation.
Jewish Messianic Expectations and the Gospels
The Gospels present Jesus as the fulfillment of Jewish Messianic expectations, which are rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures. The concept of the Messiah is a distinctly Jewish idea, foretold by the prophets and eagerly anticipated by the Jewish people.
Matthew frequently quotes Old Testament prophecies to demonstrate how Jesus fulfills them, such as Isaiah 53:4 in Matthew 8:17 and Zechariah 9:9 in Matthew 21:5. These references are intended to show Jewish readers that Jesus is the promised Messiah.
The Role of the Holy Spirit and Jewish Tradition
The role of the Holy Spirit in the Gospels also reflects Jewish expectations of divine empowerment and inspiration. The Holy Spirit is present in the Hebrew Scriptures, seen in the anointing of kings (1 Samuel 16:13) and the prophetic inspiration of individuals (Isaiah 61:1). The Gospels continue this theme, with the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus at His baptism (Matthew 3:16) and empowering His ministry (Luke 4:1).
The Gospels’ Emphasis on Fulfilled Prophecy
One of the central themes of the Gospels is the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy. Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection are presented as the culmination of God's redemptive plan foretold by the prophets. This emphasis on fulfilled prophecy underscores the continuity between the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament.
For example, the Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus' virgin birth fulfills Isaiah 7:14 (Matthew 1:23), His birthplace in Bethlehem fulfills Micah 5:2 (Matthew 2:5-6), and His role as a suffering servant fulfills Isaiah 53 (Matthew 8:17; 12:17-21). These fulfillments are intended to demonstrate that Jesus is the promised Messiah who brings to completion the hopes and expectations of the Jewish people.
The Historical Reliability of the Gospels
The historical reliability of the Gospels is supported by their close attention to geographical, cultural, and historical details. The authors of the Gospels demonstrate a deep familiarity with the region of Judea, its customs, and its religious practices. This attention to detail lends credibility to their accounts and indicates that they were written by individuals who were either eyewitnesses or had access to eyewitness testimony.
For instance, the Gospel of Luke is noted for its detailed and accurate descriptions of locations, political figures, and events. Luke’s account of the census during the time of Quirinius (Luke 2:1-3) and the specific mention of towns and regions in Jesus' ministry (e.g., Capernaum, Nazareth, Jerusalem) reflect a precise knowledge of the historical and cultural context.
The Gospel Writers' Jewish Backgrounds
The backgrounds of the Gospel writers themselves provide further evidence of the Jewish roots of these texts. Matthew, also known as Levi, was a tax collector and one of Jesus' twelve apostles. His familiarity with Jewish customs and Scripture is evident throughout his Gospel.
Mark, traditionally understood to be John Mark, was a close associate of the Apostle Peter. His Gospel is thought to reflect Peter's firsthand accounts of Jesus' life and ministry, and his narrative style is consistent with Jewish storytelling traditions.
Luke, a Gentile convert and companion of Paul, demonstrates a thorough understanding of Jewish history and customs. His Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles show a keen interest in the continuity between Judaism and Christianity.
John, the beloved disciple, was one of Jesus' closest followers. His intimate knowledge of Jewish feasts, customs, and geography is evident in his Gospel, which provides a unique theological perspective while remaining deeply connected to Jewish tradition.
The Interplay of Jewish and Greek Thought
While the primary influence on the Gospels is Jewish, it is also true that the early Christian movement existed in a world where Greek culture was dominant. This Hellenistic context influenced the way the Gospel writers communicated their message, but it did not alter the core Jewish content of the Gospels.
The use of Greek rhetorical techniques, such as parallelism and chiasmus, can be seen in the Gospels. However, these techniques were adapted to convey Jewish concepts and narratives. The use of parables, for instance, is a distinctly Jewish teaching method employed extensively by Jesus to convey spiritual truths (Matthew 13:34-35).
The Universality of the Gospel Message
While rooted in Jewish tradition, the message of the Gospels is universal, intended for all humanity. Jesus' teachings, miracles, death, and resurrection are presented as the fulfillment of God's plan for the redemption of the entire world, not just the Jewish people.
This universal message is evident in the Great Commission, where Jesus instructs His disciples to "make disciples of all nations" (Matthew 28:19). The inclusion of Gentiles in God's redemptive plan is a recurring theme in the Gospels, reflecting the promise made to Abraham that "all peoples on earth will be blessed through you" (Genesis 12:3).
The Historical Context of the Gospels
The historical context of the first-century church is crucial in evaluating claims of Greek influence. The early Christians were primarily Jewish, and their teachings were rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures. The apostle Paul, despite his Hellenistic background, emphasized the Jewish foundations of the Christian faith. In Romans 1:16, Paul declares, "For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek."
The early church fathers, including Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr, affirmed the distinctiveness of Christian doctrine from Greek philosophy and pagan religions. Justin Martyr, writing in the mid-second century, explicitly refuted claims of Christian dependence on pagan myths, asserting the uniqueness of the Gospel message.
Evaluating the Evidence for Greek Influence
To assess the validity of claims regarding Greek influence on the Gospels, several critical questions must be addressed:
What is the evidence for such claims? The evidence often cited by critics includes superficial similarities in terminology and themes. However, these parallels are frequently overstated and lack substantive proof of direct borrowing.
What are the dates for the evidence? Many of the supposed parallels, such as Gnostic texts, postdate the New Testament by several decades or even centuries, undermining claims of influence.
Are the alleged parallels really similar? Upon closer examination, the alleged similarities between the Gospels and Greek philosophical or religious texts are often exaggerated. The distinct theological and doctrinal content of the Gospels sets them apart.
Could the alleged parallels have arisen independently? Many themes, such as light and darkness or truth and falsehood, are common across various cultures and philosophies. Independent development of these ideas is a plausible explanation.
Is the claim of influence consistent with the historical information about the first-century church? The historical evidence supports the Jewish roots of early Christianity and its development within a predominantly Jewish context, rather than as a product of Greek philosophical influence.
The Distinctiveness of the Gospel Message
The Gospels present a unique and coherent message centered on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. This message is rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures and fulfilled in the person of Jesus. The prophetic anticipation of the Messiah, as seen in Isaiah 53, aligns with the New Testament portrayal of Jesus as the suffering servant who brings salvation to humanity.
The resurrection of Jesus, a cornerstone of Christian faith, is a historical event attested by multiple eyewitnesses and recorded in all four Gospels. Paul emphasizes the centrality of the resurrection in 1 Corinthians 15:14, "And if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain, and your faith is in vain." The resurrection is unparalleled in Greek philosophy and pagan religions, underscoring the distinctiveness of the Christian message.
A Deeper Evaluation of the Evidence for Greek Influence
To assess the validity of claims regarding Greek influence on the Gospels, several critical questions must be addressed:
What is the Evidence for Such Claims?
The evidence often cited by critics includes superficial similarities in terminology and themes. For instance, the use of the term "Logos" in John 1:1 is cited as evidence of Greek influence, given its philosophical use by Philo and other Greek thinkers. However, this parallel is superficial because the concept of God's Word (Logos) as active and creative is firmly rooted in Jewish Scripture. Psalm 33:6 states, "By the word of Jehovah the heavens were made, and by the breath of his mouth all their host." This demonstrates that the concept of the Logos has a deep foundation in the Hebrew Scriptures, making it unnecessary to seek Greek origins.
Furthermore, the portrayal of Jesus as the Light of the World in John 8:12 ("Again Jesus spoke to them, saying, 'I am the light of the world. Whoever follows me will not walk in darkness, but will have the light of life.'") can be linked to Old Testament passages such as Isaiah 9:2: "The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness, on them has light shone." These connections to Jewish Scripture weaken the argument for Greek philosophical influence.
What Are the Dates for the Evidence?
Many of the supposed parallels, such as Gnostic texts, postdate the New Testament by several decades or even centuries, undermining claims of influence. Gnosticism, for instance, became more defined and widespread in the second century C.E., after the New Testament writings were already in circulation. The Nag Hammadi Library, a collection of Gnostic texts discovered in Egypt, dates to the mid-second century and later. This temporal discrepancy suggests that Gnosticism could not have influenced the original writing of the New Testament but may have instead been influenced by it.
Similarly, while Philo lived contemporaneously with Jesus and the early apostles, his works were not widely known or influential in Palestine during the time the New Testament was being written. The Gospel writers, primarily focusing on the Jewish context and audience, would have had limited exposure to Philo's Hellenistic Jewish philosophy.
Are the Alleged Parallels Really Similar?
Upon closer examination, the alleged similarities between the Gospels and Greek philosophical or religious texts are often exaggerated. For instance, the mystery religions of the Greco-Roman world often involved secret rites, initiations, and polytheistic worship, which are fundamentally different from the monotheistic, public, and historical faith presented in the Gospels.
The purported parallels between the resurrection of Jesus and dying-and-rising gods of pagan mythology, such as Osiris or Dionysus, are also weak. These myths typically involve cyclical natural phenomena and lack the historical and eyewitness foundations that underpin the resurrection of Jesus. The resurrection accounts in the Gospels are grounded in specific historical claims and eyewitness testimonies, as seen in 1 Corinthians 15:3-8, where Paul lists those who witnessed the resurrected Christ.
Could the Alleged Parallels Have Arisen Independently?
Many themes, such as light and darkness or truth and falsehood, are common across various cultures and philosophies. Independent development of these ideas is a plausible explanation. Human experience and the universal quest for understanding the nature of existence often lead to similar themes arising in different contexts. The biblical authors, inspired by the Holy Spirit, used concepts familiar to their audience to convey divine truths.
For example, the contrast between light and darkness is a universal symbol for knowledge versus ignorance and good versus evil. This symbolism is evident in many cultures and does not necessitate direct borrowing. The biblical use of this symbolism is deeply rooted in Jewish Scripture, as seen in Isaiah 9:2 and Psalm 27:1: "Jehovah is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear?" These Old Testament passages provide a strong foundation for the New Testament's use of light and darkness imagery.
Is the Claim of Influence Consistent with the Historical Information About the First-Century Church?
The historical evidence supports the Jewish roots of early Christianity and its development within a predominantly Jewish context, rather than as a product of Greek philosophical influence. The early church's adherence to Jewish customs and their use of the Hebrew Scriptures in teaching and preaching highlight their Jewish identity.
Acts 2:42-47 describes the early Christian community in Jerusalem as devoting themselves to the apostles' teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread, and prayers, all within a Jewish framework. The Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) further illustrates the early church's efforts to define its identity in relation to Jewish law and tradition, not Greek philosophy.
The writings of the early church fathers, such as Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus, emphasize the distinctiveness of Christian doctrine from Greek thought. Justin Martyr, in his "First Apology," addresses the Roman Emperor, explaining the uniqueness of the Christian faith and refuting claims of dependence on pagan myths. His arguments underscore the early church's self-understanding as rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures and the revelation of Jesus Christ.
The Distinctiveness of the Gospel Message
The Gospels present a unique and coherent message centered on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. This message is rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures and fulfilled in the person of Jesus. The prophetic anticipation of the Messiah, as seen in Isaiah 53, aligns with the New Testament portrayal of Jesus as the suffering servant who brings salvation to humanity.
The resurrection of Jesus, a cornerstone of Christian faith, is a historical event attested by multiple eyewitnesses and recorded in all four Gospels. Paul emphasizes the centrality of the resurrection in 1 Corinthians 15:14, "And if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain." The resurrection is unparalleled in Greek philosophy and pagan religions, underscoring the distinctiveness of the Christian message.
The Assurance of Salvation
The assurance of salvation through the resurrection is a key aspect of the disciples' transformation. Their encounters with the risen Christ gave them an unshakeable confidence in their eternal destiny. This assurance is expressed in 1 John 5:13, "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God, that you may know that you have eternal life." The disciples' willingness to suffer and die for their faith was rooted in this certainty of eternal life, made possible by the resurrection of Jesus.
Conclusion
The claim that the Gospels are the product of Greek thinking overlooks the profound Jewish context and content of these texts. The Gospels were written by individuals deeply rooted in Jewish tradition and thought, and they reflect a continuity with the Hebrew Scriptures that is essential to understanding their message. While the use of Greek language and some rhetorical techniques was a practical necessity, the core content and themes of the Gospels remain firmly anchored in Jewish beliefs and expectations. The Gospels present Jesus as the fulfillment of Jewish Messianic hopes and the bearer of a universal message of salvation, transcending cultural and ethnic boundaries to reach all humanity.
An exhaustive examination of the claims of Greek influence on the Gospels reveals significant weaknesses in the arguments presented by liberal critics. The evidence, historical context, and theological content of the Gospels point to their roots in Jewish thought and their fulfillment in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The unique message of the Gospels, centered on the resurrection and the hope of eternal life, sets them apart from Greek philosophy and pagan religions, affirming their divine inspiration and authority.
About the Author
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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