Søren Kierkegaard, the Danish philosopher and theologian born in 1813, is often hailed as the father of existentialism. His complex body of work includes writings that engaged with the key issues of faith, ethics, and the human condition, but he was also a staunch critic of the established forms of Christianity that he believed had lost their true essence. Kierkegaard’s thought has both fascinated and perplexed Christian theologians, given his emphasis on individual faith over institutional religion and his notion of the "leap of faith." In Christian apologetics, his works have been instrumental in exploring the depth of human experience and faith, but his existential approach has also raised significant theological questions.
To fully grasp Kierkegaard’s contribution to philosophy and theology, we need to examine his major works, the stages of life he proposes, and how his ideas relate to Christian thought. His critique of "Christendom," his focus on the individual’s relationship with God, and his existential emphasis on choice and despair all play pivotal roles in his philosophy. Additionally, we will delve into his understanding of faith, truth, and reason, and the implications these have on Christian apologetics and theological thinking.
What Were Søren Kierkegaard’s Major Philosophical and Theological Contributions?
Kierkegaard was born into a devout Christian family in Copenhagen, and his personal background significantly influenced his writings. His early life was marked by tragedy, as his mother and five of his siblings died during his youth. These experiences, along with his own melancholic disposition, shaped his existential outlook on life. He became engaged to Regina Olsen, but broke off the engagement in an effort to devote his life fully to his intellectual and religious pursuits.
Kierkegaard’s writings span multiple genres, including philosophy, theology, and literature. He was prolific, producing major works such as Either/Or, Fear and Trembling, The Sickness unto Death, and Concluding Unscientific Postscript. His writings are often categorized into three main stages of life: the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious. Each stage represents a different approach to living, culminating in the religious stage, where one must make a "leap of faith" toward God.
What Are the Three Stages of Life in Kierkegaard's Philosophy?
Kierkegaard's three stages of life—the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious—represent the progression an individual must make in their spiritual journey. Each stage reflects a different way of engaging with the world and understanding existence. These stages provide a framework for Kierkegaard’s understanding of human life and faith.
The Aesthetic Stage
The aesthetic stage is the first and most superficial stage of life. It is characterized by the pursuit of pleasure, beauty, and personal satisfaction. Individuals in this stage live for the moment, seeking to avoid commitment and responsibility. The aesthetic person is concerned with immediate gratification and avoids making meaningful decisions that would require self-sacrifice or ethical reflection. Kierkegaard criticizes this stage for its inherent emptiness and despair, noting that it ultimately leads to disillusionment.
In his work Either/Or, Kierkegaard contrasts the aesthetic life with the ethical life. The aesthetic individual is portrayed as one who lives for personal whims and desires, constantly seeking new experiences but never finding lasting fulfillment. This stage is self-centered, focusing on the present without consideration for eternity or moral responsibility. Ecclesiastes 1:2 captures the essence of this stage: "Vanity of vanities, says the Preacher, vanity of vanities! All is vanity." The aesthetic life, much like the pursuit of worldly pleasures described in Ecclesiastes, ultimately leads to despair because it lacks deeper meaning or purpose.
The Ethical Stage
The ethical stage is the next step in Kierkegaard's philosophy, where individuals move beyond mere self-interest and pleasure-seeking to embrace moral responsibility and duty. The ethical person recognizes the importance of making choices based on universal principles and moral laws. In this stage, life is governed by a sense of duty to others, and the individual seeks to live in accordance with ethical norms. This stage reflects a shift from self-centeredness to a focus on moral obligations.
Kierkegaard's ethical stage is reminiscent of biblical teachings on morality and the importance of following God's commandments. As Jesus said in Matthew 22:37-39, "You shall love Jehovah your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment. And a second is like it: You shall love your neighbor as yourself." The ethical stage reflects a commitment to living out these commandments, with the individual striving to do what is right and just in the eyes of God.
However, Kierkegaard argues that the ethical stage, while a step in the right direction, is not the final destination. The ethical life, with its focus on duty and moral responsibility, can lead to despair when individuals realize their inability to perfectly uphold the moral law. This realization of personal failure becomes a gateway to the religious stage, where one must turn to God for salvation.
The Religious Stage
The religious stage is the highest stage in Kierkegaard's philosophy, representing the individual's personal relationship with God. In this stage, the individual acknowledges their own moral shortcomings and recognizes their need for faith in God’s grace. This is where Kierkegaard’s concept of the "leap of faith" comes into play. The leap of faith is a conscious decision to trust in God, even when reason and evidence may not fully support such a decision.
Kierkegaard’s religious stage emphasizes a personal, existential encounter with God. Faith, in this context, is not merely intellectual assent to doctrinal truths, but a deep, personal commitment to living in obedience to God. As Hebrews 11:6 states, "And without faith it is impossible to please him, for whoever would draw near to God must believe that he exists and that he rewards those who seek him." Faith in this stage requires a leap beyond the ethical and into a trusting relationship with God, where the individual surrenders their own will to God’s.
Kierkegaard distinguishes between two types of religion: Religion A and Religion B. Religion A is a natural religion based on human reasoning and moral striving, while Religion B is the Christian faith, which requires belief in the paradoxical truth of Christ’s incarnation and atonement. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard stresses that Christianity is not merely a rational system of ethics, but a faith that must be lived out in response to God’s self-revelation in Christ.
How Does Kierkegaard's Philosophy Address Faith and Reason?
One of the central themes in Kierkegaard’s philosophy is the relationship between faith and reason. Kierkegaard was highly critical of the rationalistic approaches to faith that dominated the intellectual landscape of his time. He believed that reason, while useful, was ultimately insufficient for arriving at true faith. For Kierkegaard, faith involves a paradox—a contradiction between the finite and the infinite, between human reason and divine revelation.
In his work Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard uses the story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Isaac as an example of faith transcending reason. According to Genesis 22:1-19, Jehovah commands Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, an act that appears morally incomprehensible by human standards. Yet, Abraham obeys, trusting in God’s promise that Isaac would be the heir through whom his descendants would come (Genesis 21:12). Abraham’s faith is a "leap" beyond the ethical and rational, an act of trust in God’s character and promises despite the apparent absurdity of the command.
Kierkegaard argues that true faith is not based on reason or evidence, but on a personal encounter with God that defies human understanding. He contrasts this with the philosophical reasoning of figures like Socrates, who sought to find truth through backward recollection of wisdom. In contrast, Christianity is based on forward expectation and trust in God’s revelation, particularly in the incarnation of Jesus Christ. As Philippians 2:6-8 declares, Jesus, "though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross."
Kierkegaard’s rejection of rationalism in matters of faith has profound implications for Christian apologetics. While reason and evidence can support belief in God, they cannot be the foundation of true faith. Faith, in Kierkegaard’s view, requires a personal commitment that goes beyond intellectual assent. This idea challenges the modern reliance on evidentialist apologetics, which seeks to prove the truth of Christianity through reason and historical evidence. Instead, Kierkegaard calls for an existential encounter with God, where faith is a matter of the heart and will, not merely the mind.
What Is the Role of Despair and Anxiety in Kierkegaard's Philosophy?
Despair and anxiety are key concepts in Kierkegaard’s philosophy, particularly in his exploration of the human condition. In The Sickness unto Death, Kierkegaard describes despair as a state of being disconnected from one’s true self, which is only found in relation to God. Despair arises when individuals place their identity in temporal things, such as wealth, status, or personal achievements, rather than in their eternal relationship with God.
Kierkegaard identifies different forms of despair, including the despair of not being aware of one’s despair, the despair of willing to be oneself without God, and the despair of not willing to be oneself. In each case, the root of despair is the individual’s separation from God. As Ecclesiastes 12:13 concludes, "Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man." True fulfillment and peace can only be found in submission to God and living in accordance with His will.
Anxiety, for Kierkegaard, is the recognition of human freedom and the potential to make choices that either align with God’s will or lead away from Him. In The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard describes anxiety as "the dizziness of freedom," the feeling that arises when individuals confront the reality of their own moral responsibility and the consequences of their choices. Anxiety, in this sense, is a necessary part of the human experience, as it forces individuals to confront their need for God’s guidance and grace.
Both despair and anxiety point to the existential struggle of living a life that is either rooted in God or alienated from Him. Kierkegaard’s emphasis on these emotions highlights the importance of personal faith and the recognition of one’s dependence on God for true meaning and purpose. As Psalm 42:1 expresses, "As a deer pants for flowing streams, so pants my soul for you, O God." The longing for God, often experienced through despair and anxiety, is what ultimately draws individuals to faith and reconciliation with their Creator.
How Did Kierkegaard Critique Institutional Christianity?
One of the most controversial aspects of Kierkegaard’s thought was his fierce critique of institutional Christianity, particularly the established church in Denmark during his time. Kierkegaard believed that the church had become complacent and corrupt, offering a superficial version of Christianity that failed to call people to true discipleship. He argued that many people who claimed to be Christians were merely cultural Christians, adhering to societal norms rather than living in genuine faith and obedience to God.
In Attack upon "Christendom", Kierkegaard accused the church of diluting the radical message of the Gospel, reducing it to a set of doctrines and rituals that required no real commitment. He saw this as a betrayal of the true essence of Christianity, which demands a personal relationship with God and a life of self-sacrifice and obedience to Christ. As Jesus warned in Matthew 7:21, "Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will enter the kingdom of heaven, but the one who does the will of my Father who is in heaven."
Kierkegaard’s critique of the church resonates with biblical teachings about the dangers of false religiosity and hypocrisy. In Isaiah 29:13, Jehovah rebukes the people of Israel for their empty worship: "This people draw near with their mouth and honor me with their lips, while their hearts are far from me, and their fear of me is a commandment taught by men." Similarly, Jesus condemned the Pharisees for their outward displays of piety that masked inward corruption (Matthew 23:27-28).
For Kierkegaard, true Christianity is not about adhering to external forms of religion but about an inward transformation that comes from living in obedience to God’s will. This transformation requires personal faith and commitment, not mere intellectual assent or participation in religious rituals. His call for a return to authentic Christianity challenges both individual believers and church institutions to examine the depth of their faith and their relationship with God.
How Does Kierkegaard’s Concept of the "Leap of Faith" Influence Christian Apologetics?
Kierkegaard’s notion of the "leap of faith" is one of his most famous and controversial contributions to philosophy and theology. According to Kierkegaard, faith is not something that can be arrived at through reason or evidence; it requires a decision to trust in God despite the uncertainty and absurdity of the human condition. This leap of faith is necessary because the truth of Christianity, particularly the incarnation and resurrection of Christ, is paradoxical and cannot be fully understood by human reason.
The "leap of faith" is rooted in Kierkegaard’s belief that God is ultimately beyond human comprehension. In Philosophical Fragments and Concluding Unscientific Postscript, he argues that God’s revelation in Christ is a divine paradox—God became man, the infinite entered the finite, and the eternal became temporal. This paradox challenges human reason and forces individuals to make a choice: either reject the paradox and rely on reason alone, or embrace the paradox in faith.
In Christian apologetics, Kierkegaard’s concept of the leap of faith presents both a challenge and an opportunity. On the one hand, it underscores the limitations of reason and the need for a personal commitment to God that goes beyond intellectual assent. This resonates with the biblical understanding of faith, as seen in Hebrews 11:1: "Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen." Faith, by its nature, requires trust in God’s promises, even when they are not fully understood.
On the other hand, Kierkegaard’s emphasis on the leap of faith raises questions about the role of reason and evidence in defending the Christian faith. While Kierkegaard rejects rational proofs for God’s existence, Christian apologetics traditionally seeks to provide reasons for belief, in obedience to 1 Peter 3:15: "But in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you." The challenge, then, is to balance Kierkegaard’s existential approach to faith with the biblical call to defend the faith using reason and evidence.
About the Author
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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