Atheism, while not a dominant worldview in ancient or medieval times, has risen to significant prominence in the modern world. The shift in human thought, particularly since the Enlightenment, gave rise to a belief system that challenges the existence of a divine being or creator. While polytheistic religions marked ancient Greek society, and theism, especially Christian theism, shaped the medieval worldview, atheism has emerged as a strong force, particularly in the intellectual, philosophical, and scientific realms of the modern era.
To understand atheism in the modern world, it is crucial to explore not only its variety but also the fundamental arguments that atheists put forward. Atheism is not a monolithic belief system, as it encompasses a range of views that share a common rejection of belief in God or any divine being. The term itself comes from the Greek "a-theos," which means "without God," but atheists come from diverse philosophical backgrounds, each with distinct beliefs regarding the universe, morality, and human existence.
What Are the Core Differences Between Atheism, Theism, and Other Worldviews?
A distinction must first be made between atheism, theism, and other related worldviews like agnosticism and skepticism. A theist believes in the existence of God, viewing Him as a being who exists beyond the world but also interacts with it. This view is the foundation of biblical monotheism, as expressed in Scriptures such as Isaiah 45:18, where Jehovah declares, "For thus says Jehovah, who created the heavens, the God who formed the earth and made it, who established it and did not create it a waste place, who formed it to be inhabited, 'I am Jehovah, and there is no one else.'" This verse emphasizes God's creative and sovereign role in the world.
Pantheism, by contrast, believes that God and the universe are essentially one and the same. In pantheism, the divine is immanent, not transcendent, which is quite different from the biblical view of Jehovah as distinct from His creation, as seen in Genesis 1:1: "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth." This creation account affirms that God is separate from the universe, standing above it as its Creator.
Atheism, on the other hand, denies the existence of any God or gods. There is only the material universe, with no divine being beyond it or within it. This position fundamentally rejects passages like Psalm 19:1, which declares, "The heavens are telling of the glory of God; and their expanse is declaring the work of His hands." Atheists see the cosmos as self-sufficient and reject the idea that the universe is evidence of God's existence.
How Do Atheism and Agnosticism Differ?
While atheism asserts that no God exists, agnosticism takes a different stance, claiming that the existence of God is either unknown or unknowable. An agnostic declares, "I don’t know (or can’t know) whether God exists," whereas an atheist boldly asserts the nonexistence of any deity. Both worldviews share a nontheistic outlook, but agnosticism is more aligned with skepticism, questioning the certainty of any knowledge about God.
Atheism’s roots in skepticism and agnosticism are seen in the writings of philosophers such as David Hume and Immanuel Kant. Hume, a skeptic, doubted the traditional arguments for God's existence, and Kant, while not explicitly atheist, argued that human reason was incapable of proving God's existence through empirical evidence. Many atheists today continue to draw from these philosophical traditions, using skepticism as a tool to challenge theistic claims.
What Are the Varieties of Atheism?
Atheism is not a single belief system but rather encompasses a range of perspectives. Some atheists deny the existence of God in an absolute sense, holding to what is called metaphysical atheism. This form of atheism asserts that there never was, is, or will be a God. This is reflected in the writings of thinkers such as Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx, Jean-Paul Sartre, and more recently, Antony Flew.
Others embrace a more mythological form of atheism. Friedrich Nietzsche, for example, did not claim that God had ever existed in the first place, but he argued that the idea of God had once served as a powerful myth that shaped human civilization. According to Nietzsche, this "God-myth" had been killed by the advancement of human understanding and culture. Nietzsche’s famous declaration that "God is dead" is a reflection of this belief. He did not mean that God was literally dead but that the concept of God no longer held sway over human life and thought.
Another form of atheism is known as dialectical atheism, briefly championed by Thomas Altizer. He proposed the radical idea that the transcendent God of Christian theism actually died in the incarnation and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This, according to Altizer, led to God's "death" being realized in modern times, signaling the end of traditional religious beliefs.
Semantical atheism, influenced by the logical positivist movement, claims that language about God is meaningless. Thinkers like Paul Van Buren argued that religious language, particularly statements about God, could not be verified by empirical observation and therefore should be discarded. This view does not necessarily deny God's existence but insists that talking about God in any meaningful way is impossible.
Practical atheism is another form of atheism where individuals may confess belief in God but live as if God does not exist. This form of atheism emphasizes that one's actions and life choices are more important than belief. Some scholars suggest that certain writings of Dietrich Bonhoeffer can be interpreted in this light, advocating that people should not use God as an excuse for inaction or failure to live responsibly.
The diversity of atheism is also expressed through various philosophical systems. Existential atheists, like Jean-Paul Sartre, deny the existence of God and emphasize human freedom and responsibility in an indifferent universe. Marxist atheists, following the ideas of Karl Marx, reject God and religion as illusions that distract people from the material conditions of their existence. Psychological atheists, such as Sigmund Freud, view belief in God as a projection of human desires and fears. Capitalistic atheists, like Ayn Rand, reject any notion of divine authority, advocating for individualism and self-interest. Behavioristic atheists, such as B.F. Skinner, focus on observable behavior and reject any appeal to the supernatural.
How Do Atheists Argue Against the Existence of God?
Atheists often focus on arguments that seek to dismantle traditional proofs for God's existence or offer reasons why God cannot exist. These arguments are usually framed in negative terms, although some atheists attempt to cast them positively. The primary categories of arguments for atheism include arguments against theistic proofs and arguments against the existence of God.
Arguments Against Theistic Proofs
One of the central focuses of atheistic philosophy has been to critique the traditional proofs for God's existence, particularly those based on cosmology, morality, and design. Drawing heavily from the skepticism of David Hume and the agnosticism of Immanuel Kant, atheists often challenge the validity of these proofs. Hume, for example, argued that the world as we observe it does not necessarily point to a creator, and Kant claimed that reason alone could not provide conclusive evidence for the existence of God.
The Problem of Evil
One of the most common arguments against the existence of God is the problem of evil. Atheists argue that if an all-powerful, all-good God exists, then evil should not exist in the world. The existence of seemingly purposeless and gratuitous evil, they argue, contradicts the idea of a benevolent deity.
Atheists contend that if God is truly omnipotent and omnibenevolent, He should have the power and the will to eliminate evil. The fact that evil persists, they argue, either proves that God does not exist or that He is not both omnipotent and omnibenevolent. Some go further to assert that the very presence of evil undermines the notion of any ultimate moral law.
Theists, however, respond that evil's existence does not necessarily disprove God but instead points to humanity's free will and the consequences of sin in a fallen world. As Romans 3:23 states, "for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God," the presence of sin and suffering reflects the fallen state of humanity and the world as a result of rebellion against God.
The Apparent Purposelessness of Life
Atheists also argue that life appears to be without purpose. They claim that the universe is indifferent to human existence, and that there is no higher purpose or meaning behind life. From an atheistic perspective, people are simply the product of random chance and natural selection, with no overarching purpose.
This view is grounded in naturalistic explanations of the universe, such as those provided by evolutionary biology. According to atheists, life is an accident, and human beings are merely a fortunate result of random genetic mutations over time. Atheists argue that the absence of an observable, objective purpose to life further negates the need for a divine being who gives life meaning.
The Bible, however, presents a different view. It teaches that life is created with purpose by Jehovah, who formed humanity in His image (Genesis 1:27). As Isaiah 43:7 explains, "everyone who is called by My name, and whom I have created for My glory, whom I have formed, even whom I have made," God created humanity for His glory, and this gives life a divine purpose that atheism denies.
Random Occurrence in the Universe
Atheists often point to the apparent randomness and disorder in the universe as evidence against the existence of a divine Creator. They argue that if there were a God, the universe should exhibit more order and purpose than what is observed. For example, the occurrence of natural disasters, genetic mutations, and seemingly arbitrary events in nature all suggest that the universe operates without any guiding intelligence.
In response, theists argue that while some events may appear random, this does not negate the existence of God. Some aspects of the universe, like the process of DNA replication, once thought to be random, have been shown to follow intricate, highly-ordered patterns. Moreover, randomness in the universe can coexist with divine sovereignty, as God may choose to allow certain events to unfold according to natural processes, as part of His overall plan.
Proverbs 16:33 illustrates the biblical view that even seemingly random events are under God's control: "The lot is cast into the lap, but its every decision is from Jehovah." While the universe may appear chaotic to human eyes, believers trust in the sovereignty of Jehovah, who governs all things according to His purposes.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Atheists sometimes appeal to the First Law of Thermodynamics as evidence that the universe is eternal and, therefore, does not require a Creator. The First Law states that "energy can neither be created nor destroyed," which, they argue, implies that the universe and its energy have always existed and will continue to exist eternally.
However, this argument misinterprets the scope of the First Law. The First Law of Thermodynamics refers only to the conservation of energy within the observable universe; it does not address the universe's origins or whether energy could have been created at some point in the past. Theists point out that the universe’s energy, while constant in quantity, is gradually becoming less usable, as described by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. This gradual increase in entropy suggests that the universe had a beginning and is not eternal.
Genesis 1:1, "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth," provides the theistic answer to the question of the universe's origins. Jehovah is the Creator who brought the universe into existence, and the First Law of Thermodynamics does not contradict this.
What Are the Tenets of Atheism?
Atheism is not a unified belief system, but there are several tenets that most atheists hold in common. While not all atheists accept every one of these beliefs, they represent a core set of ideas that define the atheistic worldview.
Beliefs About God
Atheists fundamentally believe that only the cosmos exists. They reject the notion of a Creator, viewing God as a human invention rather than an eternal being. According to this view, people created God to explain the unknown and to provide comfort in the face of life's difficulties. As Carl Sagan famously stated in his book Cosmos, "The Cosmos is all there is, all there was, and all there ever will be." This materialistic view stands in stark contrast to the biblical declaration of God's eternal existence and His role as Creator, as seen in passages like Psalm 90:2: "Before the mountains were born or You gave birth to the earth and the world, even from everlasting to everlasting, You are God."
Beliefs About the Universe
Atheists typically hold that the universe is eternal or self-sustaining. If the universe is not eternal, they argue that it must have come into existence "out of nothing and by nothing," which seems impossible to them. Therefore, many atheists adopt the view that the universe has always existed and will continue to exist without the need for a divine cause or sustainer.
The Bible, however, teaches that the universe had a beginning, and that it was created by Jehovah out of nothing. Hebrews 11:3 affirms this: "By faith we understand that the worlds were prepared by the word of God, so that what is seen was not made out of things which are visible." The biblical view is that Jehovah spoke the universe into existence, and it is not self-sustaining but dependent on Him for its continued existence.
Beliefs About Evil
Unlike pantheists, who deny the reality of evil, atheists affirm the existence of evil and see it as evidence against the existence of God. They argue that the presence of evil, suffering, and injustice in the world is incompatible with the existence of an all-good, all-powerful God.
In response, theists acknowledge the reality of evil but argue that it does not disprove God's existence. Instead, they point to human free will and the consequences of sin as the sources of evil in the world. The Bible explains that evil entered the world through humanity's rebellion against Jehovah, as seen in Genesis 3, and that God will ultimately judge and eradicate evil in His perfect timing (Revelation 20:10).
Beliefs About Human Beings
Atheists generally view human beings as purely physical entities, with no immortal soul or spiritual component. They see humans as the product of natural processes, with no divine purpose or eternal destiny. When the body dies, the soul ceases to exist, according to atheism.
This view is in stark contrast to the biblical teaching that humans are created in the image of Jehovah (Genesis 1:27) and that they possess an immortal soul. Ecclesiastes 12:7 describes the fate of the soul at death: "Then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it."
Beliefs About Ethics
Atheists generally reject the notion of moral absolutes, arguing that morality is a human invention, not something revealed by a divine being. While some atheists may adhere to widely accepted values like tolerance and freedom, they do not believe that these values are grounded in any objective moral law.
The Bible, however, teaches that morality is grounded in the character of Jehovah, who is the ultimate Lawgiver (James 4:12). His commandments provide the foundation for ethical behavior, and all people are accountable to Him for their actions (Romans 2:15).
Beliefs About Human Destiny
Most atheists believe that human beings have no eternal destiny. When a person dies, they cease to exist, and there is no afterlife or judgment. Some atheists may hold to a form of collective immortality, where humanity as a whole continues to progress and evolve, but they deny any personal, individual immortality.
This stands in contrast to the biblical teaching of eternal life and judgment. The Bible promises eternal life to those who put their faith in Jesus Christ (John 3:16) and warns of eternal punishment [i.e., eternal destruction, eternal cut off from life]* for those who reject Him (Matthew 25:46).
The Greek noun (κόλασις kolasis) refers to eternal cutting off, from life. Lit lopping off, pruning.
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How Can Theism Respond to Atheism?
While atheism has gained prominence in the modern world, it lacks adequate answers to some of life’s most fundamental questions. Theism, particularly Christian theism, offers responses to the key arguments raised by atheists and provides a more coherent and satisfying explanation of the universe, morality, and human existence.
Why Is There Something Rather Than Nothing?
One of the most pressing questions atheism fails to answer is why anything exists at all. If there is no God, why is there something rather than nothing? The existence of the universe itself points to a cause, and atheism's denial of this cause leads to an unsatisfactory conclusion.
Theism, on the other hand, posits Jehovah as the Creator of all things. As Revelation 4:11 declares, "Worthy are You, our Lord and our God, to receive glory and honor and power; for You created all things, and because of Your will they existed, and were created."
What Is the Basis for Morality?
Atheism also struggles to provide a solid foundation for morality. Without a divine Lawgiver, there is no objective standard for right and wrong. Atheists can assert that certain actions are wrong, but they cannot explain why they are wrong without appealing to a higher moral authority.
Christian theism, however, provides a clear basis for morality in the character of Jehovah, who has revealed His moral law through the Scriptures. As Micah 6:8 states, "He has told you, O man, what is good; and what does Jehovah require of you but to do justice, to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God?"
What Is the Meaning of Life?
Atheism denies any ultimate purpose or meaning in life, reducing human existence to a series of random events. In contrast, Christian theism teaches that life has profound meaning and purpose, as people are created in Jehovah's image and for His glory. Ecclesiastes 12:13 sums up the purpose of life: "The conclusion, when all has been heard, is: fear God and keep His commandments, because this applies to every person."
What Is the Basis for Truth and Reason?
Atheism also fails to provide a foundation for objective truth and reason. If the universe is the result of random chance, why should human reason be trusted? The very act of reasoning presupposes the existence of a rational Creator who designed the human mind to understand truth. Theism affirms that Jehovah is the source of all truth, as Jesus said in John 14:6: "I am the way, and the truth, and the life."
Conclusion: Atheism in the Modern World
While atheism offers various arguments against the existence of God, it ultimately falls short in answering life's most important questions. Theism, particularly Christian theism, provides a coherent and compelling worldview that explains the existence of the universe, the foundation of morality, the purpose of life, and the source of truth and reason. Through the lens of Scripture, we can see that Jehovah is the Creator, Sustainer, and ultimate source of all meaning and truth.
About the Author
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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CREATION AND COSMOS A Journey Through Creation, Science, and the Origins of Life
ANSWERING THE CRITICS: Defending God's Word Against Modern Skepticism
IS THE BIBLE REALLY THE WORD OF GOD?: Is Christianity the One True Faith?
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